什么是現代語言學？ - 行測知識
什么是現代語言學？減小字體增大字體現代語言學
語言學兩次革命。語言成為獨立的研究對象，結構主義目標是為語言而研究語言；而目前的形式學派與認知學派卻分別指向了生物、認知能力。
結構主義
現代語言學的誕生。產生背景是打破封建藩籬，開拓資本主義世界統(tǒng)一市場的需要。
a.國內確立標準語，實現無障礙交際，促進政治、經濟、文化市場的發(fā)展
b.跨文化交際與傳播
生成、認知功能主義
□語言研究最終目標是揭示大腦心智，破解人類認知，廣義生命科學之一環(huán)。
□任務與內容構成?，F代語言學不同的流派各有自己的任務與使命，結構主義語言學是各流派之基礎。
《語言學綱要》任務是：
（1）主要以結構主義理論為背景，研究語言規(guī)律，介紹語言最為一般最為基礎的知識。
（2）以現有的個別語言研究成果為基礎，歸納不同語言所具有的共同規(guī)律、規(guī)則。同時也關注某些語言的個性。
《語言學綱要》內容是：
（1）語言與社會，（2）語言的結構語音、語義與語法，（3）語法的發(fā)展
其中（2）是本課程的核心內容，是結構主義基本理論的精髓體現。它是認識語言及從事語言研究的基礎。
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解放軍文職招聘考試 新編簡明英語語言學教程筆記1-解放軍文職人員招聘-軍隊文職考試-紅師教育
發(fā)布時間：2017-05-21 16:15:44新編簡明英語語言學教程筆記Chapter one Introduction一、定義1.語言學LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通語言學General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.語言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號體系。4.識別特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多產性 Duality雙重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化傳遞⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知識點1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.語言不是一種孤立的現象，而是人類在一定的社會環(huán)境下進行的一種社會活動。⑶曾經對語言概念下過定義的語言學家Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美國語言學家Charles Hockett提出了語言的識別特征design features3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學家不只研究一種特定的語言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it"s hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起語言學家注意的是語言的發(fā)音。三、問答題1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it"s a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet .3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.現代語言學是描述性的，其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language.傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究 高級 書面語。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.現代語言學主要是共時性的，重點研究現代語言。除非對語言的各種狀態(tài)都進行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描述。5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the following reasons:⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky s ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.1/ What is linguistics?什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics語言學的研究范疇The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（語音學）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系學）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法學）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （語義學）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語用學）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社會語言學）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理語言學）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應用語言學） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語言學） neurological linguistics, （神經語言學） mathematical linguistics, （數字語言學）and computational linguistics. （計算機語言學）Chapter Two Phonology一、定義.元音VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels..輔音ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants..最小對立對Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone..互補分布complementary distributionTwo allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13.語言的語音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.14.爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]二、知識點1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 組成⑴Articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學longest established, mostly developed⑵Auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學⑶Acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].三、問答題1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory- studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic- studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.2.how are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and By manner of articulation3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要?Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義1.詞素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.6.曲折詞綴inflectional affixesThe manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7.派生詞綴Derivational affixesThe manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Chapter Four Syntax一、定義.表層結構S-structureA level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement..深層結構D-structureA level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.二、知識點2.我們把syntax的學習看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.12.短語類型Noun Phrase NPVerb Phrase VPPreposition Phrase PPAdjective Phrase APChapter 5 Semantics一、定義1.命名論The naming theoryThe naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念論The conceptualist viewIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.語境論ConceptualismIt s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行為主義論BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer . this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意義SenseIt s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意義ReferenceIt means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同義詞SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.多義詞PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)異義HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10.同音異義HomophonesIt refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.11.同形異義HomographsIt refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.12.上下義關系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.13.反義詞AntonymyIt s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.二、知識點1.Major views of meaning study:The naming Theory-----希臘Scholar PlatoThe conceptualism-----觀點代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield闡述更有說服力The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle ofsignificanceThe Behaviorism-----英國Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和 Jill故事闡明The naming theory的局限性:⑴It s only applicable to Nouns only.⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don t exist in the real world. sense2.Lexical meaning reference3.主要的意義關系 major sense relationsSynonymy ;Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymySynonymy:(1)Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialectsSynonyms(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style 分類(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning(4)Semantically different synonyms (5)collocational synonyms5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.6. some synonyms differ in their collocation.例子: Accuse .of charge . with rebuke .for sour milkRotten tomatoes addled eggs rancid bacon or butter7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.11 Homophones when two words are identical in soundRain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leekHomonymy Homographs when two words are identical in spellingBow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.Complete homonyms when two words are identical in both spelling and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.三、問答題1.how are sense and reference related?Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析為區(qū)別性特征有何相似之處？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.3.what s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?什么是語法性？一個語法上有意義的句子可能由于什么而不是有意義的?Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at allChapter 6 pragmatics一 、定義1.語境ContextThe notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言語行為理論Speech act theoryIt s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question what do we do when using language?The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.10.合作原則Cooperative PrincipleIt s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.會話含義Conversational implicaturesAccording to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.話語的言外之義是說話人通過故意違反某一準則而獲得這種聽者能懂的暗含之意。二、知識點1.語用學的幾個重要的理論⑴言語行為理論Speech act theory由英國哲學家John Austin在20世紀50年代末提出在此理論基礎上John區(qū)分了定義了敘述句Constatives和行為句performatives在區(qū)分敘述句和行為句之后，他又定義了言內行為、言外行為和言后行為例子：you have left the door wide open.Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.※在這三種行為中，語言學家對言外行為最感興趣cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.⑵會話原則CP 邏輯哲學家Paul Grice提出;2. 合作原則的準則4Maxim of Cooperative Principle數量 the maxim of Quantity----- Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required質量the maxim of Quality ----Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence關系 the maxim of relation----- be relevant方式 the maxim of manner---- Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly.4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的區(qū)分Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.5.語境中聽者與說話者shared knowledge is of two types:The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.Chapter 7 Historical linguistics一、定義1. lexical and semantic changeGenerally there are mainly two possible ways of lexical change: the addition and loss of words,which often reflects the introduction of new objects and notions in social practices.? Addition of new wordsCoinage:a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose,mostly for new things and objectsClipped words:clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrasesBlending :A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.Acronym:A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.Back-formation:A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word.Functional shift:words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes,which is also called conversion.Borrowing :when different cultures come into contact ,words are often borrowed from one language to another .?Loss of words :one of the most common cause for the loss of lexical items is the discontinuation of the object they name.?Semantic changes:widening ,narrowing,shift in meaningSemantic broadening :The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.縮小less general or inclusiveSemantic narrowing:on the other hand,semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words which are still used in modern English.Semantic shift :It s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.二、知識點2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.8.the most wide-spread morphological change in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.10.in general, linguistic change in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language is more noticeable than that in other systems of the grammar.11.the ancient adjective agreement rule was dropped out of English mainly because the inflectional endings to show agreement in case, number and gender became distinct.13.Language change is essentially a matter of change in the Grammar.15.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.※語義的變化Semantic Change 這一節(jié)非常重要32.It s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among langauges, classifying related languages into language families,and reconstructin their ancestral languages.what follows is a very brief account focusing on how historical linguists established genetic relationships of languages,and in particular,the Indo-Europeean language family.34.To identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree,and to reconstruct the protolanguage,the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.35. A language family is established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction.36.Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages.41.With the application of the comparative method,Persia,northern part of india were able to reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved.三、問答題1.characterized the nature of language changeAll living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.2. list the major causes of language changeSound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing⑴語音同化Sound assimilationAssimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.⑵規(guī)則簡化Rule simplificationIt s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english.⑶內部借用Internal BorrowingIt s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.⑷規(guī)則細化 ElaborationIt occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.⑸社會因素Social triggers⑹文化轉移Cultural transmission⑺兒童語法接近成人語法Children s approximation toward the adult grammar.A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.Chapter 8Sociolinguistics一、定義1.The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning. It is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently.2.Dialectal carietiesRegional dialect:is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.Sociolect :A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class.Language and genderLanguage and ageIdiolect=Personal dialect:A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another.Ethnic Dialect :It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds.3.Register :the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:field of discourse,tenor of discourse and mode of discourse7.雙言現象DiglossiaA sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.12.雙語BilingualismIt refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.21.語域變體Register Varieties=Situational DialectsRegisters are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.24. 社會語言學SociolinguisticsIt s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context.二、知識點1.Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional,ethnic and social groups.2.In sociolinguistic studies,speakers are treated as memebers of social groups.3.Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally.it may distinguish itself from rest of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation.20.Diglossia現象存在⑴mostly in Arabic-speaking counties,⑵Modern Greek,Swiss German and Haitian Creole.⑶in Paraguay,spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety.21.Bilingualism現象存在⑴Canada: English and French⑵Finland: Finnish and Swedish⑶Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch22.Most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that s a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains.23.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced form of social isolation,such as racial discrimination or segregation.24.The most widespread and most familiar ethnic variety of the english langauge is Black English.三、問答題1. how to distinguish a particular register from other registers?⑴distinctive words⑵using words or phrases in a particular way.⑶speical grammatical constructions,such as scientific language,or legal language.2. distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia.Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community;in a diglossic community,two varieties of language are used for different situations,one being more standard and higher,and used for more formal matters,the other less prestigious,used for colloquial situations.3. 黑人英語的特點⑴ one of the most prominent phonological features of black english is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme.e.g. desk pronounced as/des/, told pronounced as /tou/;⑵one of the syntactic feature of black english is the absence of the copula,such as they mine , you crazy . Copula deletion as such occurs in some other english dialects,as well as in language like Arabic,Russian and chinese;⑶the double negation construction with sentence like I donot know nobody .黑人英語的disinctive feature persis not for racial,but for social,educationa and economic reasons.4.列舉女性言語和男性言語相異的方面List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other.⑴Women tend to use more presigious forms,more polite and indirect language,and more specific color terms than their male counterparts.⑵Women use more questions than declarative statements than males.6.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?As a major component of grammar,syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.if,on the other hand,a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized,then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker.For any natural language,it"s the set of rules that makes it possible for the speakers to produce,comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native languageChapter 12 language and the brain一、定義1. Cerebral CortexThe outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.接受所有感覺器官傳來的信息，是人的認知能力所存在的區(qū)域。2.大腦側化Brain LateralizationThe localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.認知機能和感知機能位于大腦的某一半球。3.語言側化Linguistic lateralizationHemispheric specialization or dominance for language.4.兩耳分聽Dichotic ListeningA research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.5.關鍵期the critical periodAn early period of one s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions.6. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis假設A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.人們看世界的方式完全或部分地由他們母語的結構決定，7.自我交際Interpersonal communicationThe process of using language within the individual to facilitate one s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.語言使用者本人用語言促進自己的思維和幫助形成和使用概念的過程。8.無聲言語Subvocal SpeechA term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.用于指語言和思維是同一或近乎相同的.9.神經元NeuronsLying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons.10.腦半球HemispheresThe brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere.11.Broca s area French Surgeon: Paul BrocaThe language centre in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca s area.12.語言決定論Linguistic determinismWhorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.13.語言相對論Linguistic relativismIt refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.It s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought.二、知識點1.Three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language:Broca s area. =ExpressionWernicke s area=UnderstandingAngular gyrus. =converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form, vice versa2.The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body.3.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain---Cerebral cortex.4.The Cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions6.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational.7.Most individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, regardless of handiness.8.Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemisphere comes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks.兩耳分聽證明了左半球的側化。9.Righ hear advantage shows the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that"s where language centers reside.右耳優(yōu)勢證明了大腦左半球并不是處理所有聲音時都有優(yōu)勢，只是處理本質上是語言的聲音時有優(yōu)勢：大腦左側負責語言，語言中樞就位于這一部分。12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs.13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area.14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one s life extending from about two to puberty.17. 早期學者針對語言和思想的觀點⑴Plato suggested that thought was the soul s discourse with itself.柏拉圖認為語言和思想相互統(tǒng)一的。⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences.亞里士多德認為語言只是人類體現的符號。The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist.兩個人的觀點向背。一個是心靈主義，另一個是經驗主義。⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.美國的Watson承襲了Plato的觀點，Bloomfield提出了近似的觀點。21.Major functions of language⑴ a means of interpersonal communication.人際交流⑵ a means of intrapersonal communication.自我交流三、問答題1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?In what have come to be known as Broca s area, Wernicke s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and culture?Language doesn t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures.3.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.It s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern,when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke s area and sent to Broca s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition一、定義1. Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition refers to the development of the Child s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.3.行為主義學習理論Behaviourist learning theoryIt s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.4.interlanguage 中介語Proposed by S.Pit Corder and Larry Selinker ,the concept of interlanguage was established as learners independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language,but a continuum of approximation from his mother language to the target language.The three important characteristics:systematicity,permeability,fossilization18.It s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.20.three main different theories concerning how language is learnedA:the behaviorist traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.B:the innatist the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are bioligically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.C:the interactionist the interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between thr human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops三、問答題1. what are the major individual factors for SLA（第二語言習得）?The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors.the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors.(1)The early years of one s life before puberty;(2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative;(3)The extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is , acculturation.(4)Learner s personality.2.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced, discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the inatist biological model.論述行為主義學習理論和生物先天論這兩種相對立的觀點。The Behaviourist view:language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development.Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong.語言習得是一個習慣培養(yǎng)的過程。語言是通過刺激與反應學習的。對有選擇的反應的強化是理解語言發(fā)展的關鍵。兒童學會正確的使用語言，是因為他們正確的言語是得到積極強化而錯誤的言語得到消極強化。The inatist view:language acquisition is the species---specific property of human beings, children are born with an innate ability to acquire language ,they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition.語言習得是人類特有的特性。兒童生來就具有天生的學習語言的能力，他們生來就具有習得本族語的能力，其習得過程沿著一條普遍、自然的軌道，并經歷相似的階段。他們使用語言習得的特有天賦習得本族語的語法。3.Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter.論述導致大多數第二語言學習者學習困難的一個主要因素。It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adultL2 learners arise from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment .Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, which learning is conscious, focusing on form. Its argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is , does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.習得是無意識的，注重的是意義；學習是由意識的，注重的是形式。4.Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition.列舉第二語言習得中出現系統(tǒng)性錯誤的一些原因Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include(1)Interference from the mother tongue;母語干擾(2)Interlingual interference within the target language;目標語的語際語干擾(3)overgeneralization.過度概括具體分析Interference from the mother tongue:Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.Interlingual interference:Interlingual interference，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures.Overgeneralization：The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations課本外練習資料中的考點內容一、定義7.深層結構Deep structureIt s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it.12.人際交流Intrapersonal communicationIt refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.二、問答題1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system.Language is basically vocal.Language is arbitrary.Language is used for human communication.3.what s Broca s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca s area.⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.⑷It s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?語言的本質在歷史語言學中的含義？⑴language change is inevitable.⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.9.語言的兩種功能two functions of language?Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.人際交流和自我交流⑴ language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other s behavior.⑵ it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.10.為什么說結構樹形圖比線形圖可更好的說明句子的層次性？why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.⑵for example, the phrase the old men and women may have two interpretation. The adject old may modify the noun men ,or the women . or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.Chapter 9 language and culture1.what is culture?In a broad sense,means integrated pattern of human knowledge,belief,and behavior that is both a result of an integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.In a narrow sense ,culture may refer to local or specific practice,beliefs or customs.2.the relationship between language and culturesince the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people s culture are imperceptibly encoded and transmitted in the language of people,it is extremely difficult to separate the two.on the one hand ,language as an intergral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world.it both experesses and embodies cultural reality. On the other ,language,as a system of spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other,reflects and affects a culture s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence,which also facillitates the development pof this language at the same time.3.the significance of culture teaching and learningLanguage as the keystone is tightly intertwined with culture. Learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture. We need to learn enough about the language"s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well. This is of great significance in learning a foreign or second language.4.interculture communicationAlso known as cross-cultural communication ,is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.It is frequently used to refer to communication between people from different cultures ,which implies a comparison between cultures.As a newly-established discipline,intercultural communication makes multidisciplinary study of politeness across cultures in great detail. It helps to bridge the gap between both cultural and linguistic differences.As the world is becoming a global village ,its significance becoming more and more self-evident.
